Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Danielle McHaskell, Bench Science & Field Work(s), 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
“Passengers of Change" is a co-laboratory comprised of artist and historian Joe Riley, artist and chef Audrey Snyder, and marine-ecologist Danielle McHaskell. Together, we are modeling a critical and durable collaborative practice across disciplinary categories by getting into the water, lab, and studio together. We are working through and with the politics of interdisciplinarity and its contours shaped by institutions, capital, history, and (in this case) sea life.
Through a co-laboratory that is always in progress and growing at the speed of trust, we have designed and built a platform we call “Ballast Bench." This instrument is part observation tank and part tool for studying Undaria pinnatifida, a globally migratory form of seaweed variously characterized as either a colonizing force or an opportunistic passenger of ecosystem change.
Since at least the second half of the 20th century, Undaria have been found outside their place of origin: the coastal waters of Asia. These macroalgae are increasing in abundance throughout coastal regions of the Mediterranean, Europe, Australia, and the Americas, where it has come to be widely considered a non-native or out-of-place seaweed. Today, ecologists count Undaria among the world’s 100 “most invasive” organisms. [1] One of only two algae to appear on this list, it continues to flourish in distant and diverse bioregions, where it is regarded as a potential threat to global biodiversity. This status has prompted the question of whether Undaria should be considered a “driver” of ecosystem change or merely a “passenger” along for the ride.
Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Danielle McHaskell, Bench Science & Field Work(s), 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
This image shows an excerpt from Graham Epstein and Dan A. Smale’s 2017 paper “Undaria pinnatifida: A case study to highlight challenges in marine invasion ecology and management,” alongside a tightly cropped photograph of a scientist’s hands at work, with a collection of Petri dishes on a standard laboratory bench.
A bench scientist is a scientist who does their work in a laboratory. When oceanographers work in or around the sea, they carry the forms, structures, and protocols of the laboratory bench with them. The bench is a platform, a drafting table, for doing the “graphic” work of oceanographic research—that is to say, writing, drawing, and modeling the ocean.
Our work departs from the microcosms and protocols staged around the laboratory bench to enter into an expanded set of relations between micro- and macroscopic algae, solid and liquid ballast, and histories of shipping of colonial and ecological invasions. The bench becomes an instrument of study and analogy for the transport of solid and liquid forms of ballast that lend stabilizing weight to global shipping networks and structure contemporary debates in oceanographic science around marine invasive creatures and coastal ecological change.
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Undaria pinnatifida, Collected by M. Richards, n.d., Farlow Herbarium, Harvard University, FH00884607. Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
Commonly known as wakame, Undaria is endemic to the coastal waters of Japan, where for centuries it has featured prominently in food and literature, and most recently as a briny fruit of large-scale aquaculture farms. [2]
Perhaps because of its importance and abundance in Japanese cuisine, the collector for this particular specimen did not have to travel far from home or wade in the intertidal zone to find Undaria. Handwritten notes on the herbarium pressing read: “Undaria pinnatifida, “Wakame,” bought in the Tokyo Market. It is sold rolled up on straws.”
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, (Re)Making a False Bay, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
Our work Undaria begins with an account of the context in which we found it: at the channelized entrance to Mission Bay in San Diego, California.
Over the past three years, we have visited this site—glimpsed from the water in this photograph—dozens of times, putting on wetsuits, snorkels, and diving masks to search for the seaweed Undaria pinnatifida. As we swim and dive along the entrance to Mission Bay, searching for wavy seaweeds and avoiding passing boats, we are immersed in a history of conquest and terraforming that conditioned the presence of Undaria at the site and our movements and relations. Mission Bay is not a natural formation. It was created over more than a century of interventions that may be traced back to the mid-19th century, when the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers permanently diverted the San Diego River from its then-wandering path out of the mouth of the San Diego Harbor northward into the wetland area then known as False Bay, after Bahía Falsa, a name given to the estuary by 16th-century Spanish colonizers. [3]
Moving the river was an ambitious attempt to abate a steady increase in sediments deposited from the seasonally fluctuating watershed into San Diego’s primary commercial harbor. This was done through the construction of a nearly eight-thousand-foot-long cobblestone levee. [4] The San Diego River became the focus of this extraordinary engineering feat because it was perceived as a threat to the economy and futurity of a rapidly developing Southern California metropolis. The sediments conveyed downstream formed shoals that threatened to trap ships and filled in the already narrow shipping channel, making the waterway impassable for the large, deep draft trading vessels arriving at San Diego in increasing numbers from distant ports of call.
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During our collecting dives, we accumulate a briny tangle to bring back to a laboratory at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, where marine ecologist Danielle McHaskell (pictured in the above image) is working on a long-term scientific analysis of how Undaria arrived and thrived on San Diego’s coast.
Danielle’s dissertation research, MAMI WATA (Multi-year Assessment of Marine Invasive and Worldwide Algae Transported Across the Pacific), seeks to understand and account for the expanding presence of Undaria pinnatifida in Southern California Coastal waters and worldwide. Alongside marine ecological survey methods such as those evidenced in this composite image, McHaskell’s project is grounded in African and diasporic marine caretaking practices, water stories, and spirit.
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Danielle McHaskell, A Briny Tangle, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
Herbarium of the University of California, Santa Barbara, UCSB049623. Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
Undaria pinnatifida was collected by Sarah K. Henkel in 2006 from a public dock in Coronado, San Diego. The Coronado peninsula encloses San Diego harbor, once called “a very good enclosed port,” in 1542 by colonizer Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo, one of the first Europeans to encroach upon the region’s coastal lands and waters. Today, San Diego is the seat of Naval Base Coronado, among the largest US military command stations, and a home port for approximately 24% of all Navy vessels. [5]
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Ballast Tank Divers, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
This composite image depicts seaweed survey divers in the waters of Mission Bay, framed by a cargo ship’s internal steel truss, which supports and compartmentalizes the vessel’s water ballast tanks.
Today, there is general agreement that Undaria’s widespread distribution accompanies the rapid expansion of global maritime shipping in the postwar 20th and 21st centuries. Still, there is little in the way of substantive understanding and data about exactly how the material conditions and mechanisms of global shipping have and may still structure this particular seaweed’s spread.
Our collaborative has gathered around this question, literally and figuratively swimming with Undaria in the impacted waterways of Southern California, and through experiments in which we recreate the dynamic conditions of liquid ballast tanks.
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Kelp Over Cabrillo, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
Named after the Latin unda, meaning wave, Undaria is distinguished by its curving or undulating blades, which have been likened to visual representations of waveforms. Mobilizations of marine invasive creatures, militaries, social movements, economies, and even pandemics are likewise described as undulatory phenomena.
As a species traveling through, with, and over all manner of waves, Undaria directs our attention to the tensions and slippages between the structures of a coast and the form and agency of a seaweed. Undaria does not travel from coast to coast on its own. It requires a medium and a container to move great distances. The Undaria we encountered in Mission Bay likely arrived in the liquid ballast of ocean-crossing ships. That prospect led our co-laboratory in two directions. It prompted us to design an instrument that creates waves and simulates the medium of liquid ballast and to pursue a critical historical account of ballast in coastal Southern California.
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Herbarium of the University of California, Santa Barbara, UCSB049602. Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
Undaria pinnatifida collected by marine ecologist Sarah K. Henkel at the Cabrillo Way Marina in March 2006. This specimen was situated at the Port of Los Angeles entrance, which, together with the adjacent Port of Long Beach, handles roughly 30% of all containerized cargo passing through the US mainland. In 2006, the California State Legislature passed the Coastal Ecosystems Protection Act, detailing strict ballast water management and discharge standards for cargo ships entering California ports. The legislation mandates that locally discharged ballast water contains zero detectable organisms. Its stringent standards have not been enforced, in part because no current ballast water treatment technologies are capable of meeting them. [6]
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, The Camera? Did We Bring It?, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
This image includes examples of data collected during dozens of seaweed surveys of the Mission Point Jetty, consisting of a sloping jetty rock rip-rap, which creates an artificial subtidal rocky habitat adjacent to a sandy bottom. Indeed, Undaria tends to settle on disturbed, human-impacted coastal structures, like the Mission Point jetty, constructed to protect the channelized entrance to Mariner’s Cove. Mission Bay’s status as an artificial or human-impacted waterway helps us make this transition through a unique relationship to settler-colonial land use practices involving the creation and diversion of rivers and the large-scale movement of rocks and sediments across and through the water.
In San Diego, the settler predilection for terraforming coastal waterways reached new heights beginning in 1930 and continuing through the 1960s, when city developers transformed False Bay—by that time substantially choked with sediments from diverted watersheds—into Mission Bay, the largest recreational aquatic park in the U.S. by dredging some twenty-five million cubic yards of sand and silt. For example, the liquefaction of Mission Bay tracks closely with an accompanying technological transmutation of ballast in the holds of ships during the years leading up to WWII and on through the postwar era. Jettisoning stone and other mineral aggregates in favor of less cumbersome or more fluid matter, large military and cargo ships were increasingly ballasted by the same stuff that a floating vessel is designed to displace: liquid water.
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Carrying Ballast, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
It may seem counter-intuitive, but ships must be weighted down to stay afloat. For centuries, laborers and sailors collected stones and other solid matter from terra firma, loading great quantities of these materials to help balance and stabilize ocean-crossing vessels. Those ballast stones were carried away and discharged in distant ports when the ship arrived to trade or exchange cargo. In and around these ports, ballast was discarded as waste or repurposed as a building material. When mariners collected ballast, the accumulated material frequently included local soil and seeds. Once discharged at a faraway port, those seeds might remain in the aggregate and soil for decades before taking root as out-of-place ballast flora in a new locale.
Framed with elements from an Undaria herbarium pressing, including a scale bar and color target, this image includes drawings of figures transferring ballast stones to and from a shipbuilding plan, c. 1720. This particular design was created by the influential Spanish naval architect José Antonio de Gaztañeta e Iturribalzaga, known for building interoceanic vessels in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. [7] Gaztañeta wrote the first official treatise on ship design for the Spanish Royal Navy, which curiously begins with a warning that readers should avoid looking for fine details and moments of beauty (flowers, as a literal translation puts it) in the treatise’s plans:
“Tres cosas te pido, lector amigo, por ti mismo. Una es, que si no tienes perfecta comprensión de la náutica, no censures lo que no entiendes. Otra, que si la posees, y dificultas, me hagas honra de suspender la censura, hasta la experiencia. Otra, que no te detengas en buscar flores en mi estilo; porque jamás tuve cuidado de ellas, ni la sincera verdad las necesita.” [8]
Yet the most minor overlooked details—like so many seeds and plants traveling and crossing oceans in solid ballast for centuries—inevitably find a way of making themselves known.
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Undaria pinnatifida was collected in Nagasaki, Japan, in April 1861; shortly after, the specimen was initially described by Irish botanist and phycologist William Henry Harvey (1811-1866) in 1860. Harvey encountered the seaweed in the botanical collections produced by the US North Pacific Exploring and Surveying Expedition (1853-56), a US imperial surveying project launched at the peak of the American whaling industry’s global expansion. The label on this 1861 pressing identifies the specimen by its initial Western scientific nomenclature, Alaria pinnatifida. The currently accepted name for Undaria was updated by Harvey in 1873.
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Farlow Herbarium, Harvard Univeristy, FH00884610. Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Moving Monuments, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
The waves of conquest and colonization of California first crested on the coastal point (viewed from this image)—the apex of what is today called Point Loma. For thousands of years, Indigenous peoples utilized Amat Kunyily, or Mat Loan, as this area is known in Kumeyaay, to access the kelp forest habitats that run parallel to the coastline and served as abundant sources of food and thoroughfares for human and animal migration. [9] Fire-affected rockpiles on the point's eastern side indicate its extended durational use as a site for drying and roasting harvested aquatic plants and animals. [10]
In the 16 th century, the Spanish began calling this part of the peninsula La Punta de los Guijarros, The Point of Cobblestones, referring to the abundant, smooth stones strewn across the beach, which mariners considered ideal for use as ship ballast. Subsequent generations of settlers called the site Ballast Point. They exploited it as a primary source of weighty materials for keeping ships stable and right-side-up on the long, stormy return voyages to the eastern U.S. and Western Europe. It is said that stones from San Diego’s Ballast Point paved Water and Milk streets in Boston, Massachusetts. [11]
During the late 19th and early 20th century, the cliff overlooking Ballast Point became a popular tourist destination. In 1913, a presidential proclamation carved out a half acre of land at the top of Point Loma to establish Cabrillo National Monument. The Order of Panama, a local San Diego group dedicated to establishing “marks of recognition all over the city and the bay that will perpetuate the deeds of the Spanish,” [12] proposed to construct a 150ft. tall concrete statue of Cabrillo at Point Loma’s precipice. The monument to “the deeds of the Spanish” at Point Loma did not materialize until the Government of Portugal shipped a 14ft. sandstone statue of Cabrillo to California for display at the Golden Gate International Exhibition of 1940. The statue arrived too late to be exhibited but soon found its way to the cliff above Ballast Point, where it stayed out of sight for World War II.
At the official post-war dedication in 1949, the Cabrillo monument's arrival was said to mark the end of a “restless and wandering existence” for a statue intended to “stand until the winds and storms of many decades slowly wear it away.” [13] In 1988, the eroding likeness of Cabrillo was replaced with a more durable limestone replica. [14] Today, U.S. military installations flank Cabrillo National Monument on all sides. The rocky shoreline of Ballast Point has been transformed into concrete jetties—a likely substrate for seaweeds like Undaria pinnatifida— for U.S. Navy nuclear submarines.
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A handwritten note on this Undaria pressing states that it was acquired by the New York Botanical Garden in December 1939—soon after the beginning of WWII—in an exchange with the specimen’s collector, Yukio Yamada (1900-1975), a professor at the Hokkaido Imperial University in Sapporo, Japan. Between 1928-30 Yamada traveled throughout Europe and America to visit institutional herbaria and study the Japanese seaweed specimens held in those collections. [15] Yamada’s laboratory was a hub of psychological research in Japan during WWII and the US Occupation of Japan, when seaweeds were viewed as critical raw materials for mass-producing chemical compounds, like potassium chloride, for industrial fertilizers and explosives. [16]
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Steere Herbarium, New York Botanical Garden, NYBG02283473. Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
Undaria pinnatifida was collected by Hiroyuki Hirose near Sibayama Station in Hyogo Prefecture, Japan. Collection records indicate that the specimen was harvested in March 1952. By the time the seaweed was dried, pressed, and entered into a herbarium collection in May of the same year, the postwar US military occupation of the country had (officially) concluded.
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Butler University Herbarium, BUT505337. Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, In a Ship's Ballast, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
This image includes images of a wet lab room used for studying and cultivating macroalgae at Scripps Institution of Oceanography and an excerpt from one of the earliest scientific papers (from 1973) identifying liquid water as a vector for transoceanic distribution of marine organisms. During the long 20th century, ocean-crossing ships were increasingly ballasted by the same stuff that a floating vessel displaces: liquid water. Fluid ballast is a crucial, yet often overlooked, technological influence of postwar globalization, helping to drive unprecedented changes in shipping and logistics alongside the coinciding rise of liquid fossil fuels and containerization.
As larger and larger liquid-ballasted cargo ships arrived in ports to traffic in ever-greater volumes of cargo, vessels would discharge an indeterminable fluid mixture, something like a transoceanic soup, comprised of seawater and suspended sediments and particulate matter (potentially) from all over the globe. Dock workers, fishers, and zoologists alike began recognizing new marine flora and fauna arriving and thriving in the coastal waters of port cities in the early 20th century. However, it wasn’t until 1973 that marine scientific literature (excerpted in the above image) recognized ballast water as the primary medium of these coastal invasions. [17] More recent estimates suggest that since the beginning of the 21st century, over 10,000 marine species per day are transported in liquid ballast, thus continuously and exponentially increasing biological invasions of marine coastal regions. [18]
Undaria is a seaweed that survives, and even thrives, in stressful and imbalanced conditions because of its material-fluid nature. As a non-vascular organism, Undaria absorbs and metabolizes nutrients directly from watery environs through cellular walls in a phenomenon known as “membrane fluidity.” [19] This process enables Undaria’s surprising capacity to live for extended periods in low-light conditions, such as pitch-dark ballast tanks or a dark room in a wet laboratory like the one pictured in this image. Membrane fluidity also contributes to Undaria’s broad span thermal acclimation, or capacity to tolerate significant fluctuations in surrounding water temperatures. [20] These traits conspire to make a uniquely resilient marine algae and, incidentally, a robust and active passenger through/of the fluid infrastructures assembled by contemporary networks of ports, ships, cargo, and ballast.
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University of Guam Marine Macrophyte Collection, GH0006489. Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
An endemic Undaria specimen from Taiping Bay, Qingdao, China, collected by Xu Fali in 1958. Fali was a close colleague of phycologist C.K. Tseng, a Chinese marine scientist who worked at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography during WWII. In the 1950s, Tseng, Fali, and other scientists at the Chinese Academy of Sciences Marine Biological Laboratory in Qingdao innovated large-scale maricultural techniques for growing seaweed. [21] This particular specimen was collected in 1958, at the outset of the Great Leap Forward, beginning a period of rapid industrialization and social upheaval in China, during which ocean farming was dramatically expanded. Yet, marine scientific infrastructure and institutions severely diminished. Today, China is the largest global producer and exporter of cultivated Undaria. [22]
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Ballast Water Exchange, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.
These images, drawn from several industry and scientific publications on ballast water, show processes of inspecting, sampling, cleaning, and cycling ballast water tanks. [23]
Since 2017, the International Ballast Water Management Convention (now adopted by 79 countries, not including the United States) has obliged ships registered in nations that are party to the agreement to intermittently absorb and release liquid ballast during transoceanic passages so that hitchhiking organisms like Undaria might be flushed away. [24] This strategy is called Ballast Water Exchange (BWE).
During cycles of BWE, the seemingly water-tight hull of a liquid ballasted ship becomes permeable—perhaps analogically similar to algal liquid membranes—but also less penetrable to quantitative analysis and accountability. Current enforcement of ballast water standards is undermined by inconsistent sampling and analysis, and shipping corporations tend to obfuscate their BWE practices by concealing ships' records and evading regulatory pressures at all costs. [25] Furthermore, recent studies indicate that while BWE is generally effective at removing water itself from ballast tanks, many passenger organisms stubbornly persist in the hold, embedded in residual sediments that settle and accumulate and escape, like silt, into a shallow harbor, in the tanks and through the cracks and fissures of leaky vessels and coastal infrastructures. [26]
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San Diego Natural History Museum Herbarium, Algae Collection, SD00003166. Image: Image: Macroalgal Herbarium Consortium.
Undaria specimen collected by marine biologist Peter S. Vroom in March 2009 from Rio Del Mendicanti in Venice, Italy. Undaria has increased along Venice’s canals since at least 1992, displacing and competing with numerous endemic macroalgae species. [27] A focal point in histories of global trade and maritime capitalism, Venice, with its Undaria-laden canals, may also be viewed as an ecological model of the late late-stage neo-liberal capitalism. [28]
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This image shows the identification and counting of Undaria’s reproductive cells, sporophytes, and gametophytes, which are observed and counted through a microscope. Undaria tends to reproduce in the winter and spring months in the Northern Pacific region. During those months and throughout the exhibit “Passengers of Change” at the Birch Aquarium, we will conduct a series of experiments with Undaria sporophytes and gametophytes housed within “Ballast Bench.”
Roughly the size of a laboratory work table, the Ballast Bench borrows its hybrid form from the laboratory bench and the ballast tank. Its elliptically curved bottom causes the whole object to go back and forth when a person sits on top. The bench's audible but optically invisible contents are dozens of gallons of seawater inoculated with hundreds of Undaria sporophytes and gametophytes. It is a simulated liquid ballast and a medium for an experimental study of the microscopic stages of Undaria over the temporal course of an ocean crossing ship’s passage. It is a timespan that is clocked within the duration of an art exhibition.
When visitors (such as yourself) sit atop and rock the bench back and forth, they mimic a ship's pitch and roll, making waves inside a concealed world. Bench sitters are passengers of a marine scientific experiment through which the survival and reproduction rates of tiny invasive algae spores under these ballast tank conditions are monitored and tracked in a scientific analysis that cross-references the survival and growth of Undaria inside the bench with those out in the field, at sites like Mission Bay.
Ballast Bench gives form to the questions and matters of exchange and transference in and across oceans and between human and nonhuman systems. As a component of Passengers of Change, it points to a proliferation of marine invasive species carried and displaced in the coastal waters of San Diego as an extension of the systems of water, land, and resource expropriation established by colonial regimes and expanded under modern globalization. These histories also remind us to take care to differentiate the colonial and capitalist imaginaries of invasion, expropriation, and liquidation of life and land and seascapes from the relations of invasive and non-native species. Peripatetic study of an organism like Undaria has helped us to do so and to pursue a loosening of disciplinary boundaries between art and science across human and nonhuman interests without over-essentializing or reducing either to the other.
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Joe Riley, Audrey Snyder, Danielle McHaskell, Sitting With Sporophytes, 2021-24, digital collage, 13.5 x 20 in.[1] Lowe, S. , Browne, M. , Boudjekas, S. , & De Poorter, M. (2000). 100 of the World's Worst Invasive Alien Species. The Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) a specialist group of the Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), 11.
[2] Eric Rutledge, “The Man’yōshū in English,” ed. Ian Hideo Levy, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 43, no. 1 (1983): 263–90.
[3] Nan Taylor Papageorge, “The Role of the San Diego River in the Development of Mission Valley,” San Diego History Center | San Diego, CA | Our City, Our Story (blog), accessed February 8, 2022, https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1971/april/river/.
[4] Richard F Pourade, “The Glory Years, 1865-1899,” San Diego History Center, San Diego, CA, Our City, Our Story (blog), accessed February 8, 2022, https://sandiegohistory.org/archives/books/gloryyears/ch10/.
[5] “Military in San Diego - San Diego Military Advisory Council,” May 31, 2023, https://sdmac.org/military-in-san-diego/.
[6] California State Lands Commission, “California Ports Support Ballast Water Management Legislation,” California Ports Association, accessed September 11, 2024, https://californiaports.org/california-ports-support-ballast-water-management-legislation/.
[7] Jesús Alberto Aldana Mendoza, “Treatises and Technical Texts of Shipbuilding,” Nautical Archaeology Digital Library, December 2020, https://shiplib.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/13.01-Antonio-de-Gaztaneta-e-Iturribalzaga-English.pdf.
[8] Antonio de Gaztañeta, Proporciones de las medidas más esenciales para la fábrica de nuevos navíos y fragatas de guerra, 1720, Museo Naval, Madrid.
[9] Amira Ainis et al., “The Potential Use of Seaweeds and Marine Plants by Native Peoples of Alta and Baja California: Implications for ‘Marginal’ Island Ecosystems,” 2019, 135–70, https://doi.org/10.5744/florida/9780813056166.003.0005.
[10] Dennis Gallegos and Carolyn Kyle, Five Thousand Years of Maritime Subsistence at CA-SDI-48, on Ballast Point, San Diego County, California (Salinas, CA: Coyote Press, 1998).
[11] Edward J. P. Davis, Historical San Diego: The Birthplace of California: A History of Its Discovery, Settlement and Development, 1st Edition (Edward J. P. Davis, 1953), 27-28.
[12] “Cabrillo NM: Administrative History (Chapter 2),” accessed October 12, 2022, https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/cabr2/adhi2.htm.
[13] “Cabrillo NM: Administrative History (Chapter 6),” https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/cabr2/adhi6.htm.
[14] David Smollar, “Cabrillo Again Stands Watch at Point Loma,” Los Angeles Times, February 28, 1988, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-02-28-me-224-story.html.
[15] Munenao Kurogi, “Yukio Yamada (1900–1975),” Phycologia, June 1, 1976, https://doi.org/10.2216/i0031-8884-15-2-215.1.
[16] “The History of Iodine in Japan_english | ヨウ素学会,” accessed September 28, 2024, https://fiu-iodine.org/en/history_english/.
[17] Charlie Hailey, “Ballast,” in Making Things International 1, ed. Mark B. Salter, Circuits and Motion (University of Minnesota Press, 2015), 98–112, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctt14jxw02.11.
[18] “Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife, and Water.” (United States Senate, June 17, 2003), https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2003/6/subcommittee-on-fisheries-wildlife-and-water.
[19] Dmitry A. Los, Kirill S. Mironov, and Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev, “Regulatory Role of Membrane Fluidity in Gene Expression and Physiological Functions,” Photosynthesis Research 116, no. 2–3 (October 2013): 489–509.
[20] Natalia V. Zhukova and Irina M. Yakovleva, “Low Light Acclimation Strategy of the Brown Macroalga Undaria Pinnatifida: Significance of Lipid and Fatty Acid Remodeling for Photosynthetic Competence,” Journal of Phycology 57, no. 6 (2021): 1792–1804.
[21] Peter Neushul and Zuoyue Wang, “Between the Devil and the Deep Sea: C. K. Tseng, Mariculture, and the Politics of Science in Modern China,” Isis 91, no. 1 (2000): 59–88.
[22] “Global Production Undaria,” Seaweed Insights, accessed September 28, 2024, https://seaweedinsights.com/global-production-undaria/.
[23] NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory, Sample Collection inside a Ballast Tank., November 2, 2006, photo, November 2, 2006, https://www.flickr.com/photos/noaa_glerl/8741753264/.
[24] International Maritime Organization, “International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM),” September 8, 2017, https://www.imo.org/en/About/Conventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Control-and-Management-of-Ships%27-Ballast-Water-and-Sediments-(BWM).aspx.
[12] Mia Mahmudur Rahim, Md Tarikul Islam, and Sanjaya Kuruppu, “Shipping Companies’ Accountability in Ballast Water–Induced Pollution Regulation,” SSRN Scholarly Paper (Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network, August 1, 2019), https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3441641.
[26] Vanessa Molina and Lisa Drake, “Efficacy of Open-Ocean Ballast Water Exchange: A Review,” Management of Biological Invasions 7 (January 1, 2016): 385, https://doi.org/10.3391/mbi.2016.7.4.07.
[27] D. Curiel et al., “The Introduced Alga Undaria Pinnatifida (Laminariales, Alariaceae) in the Lagoon of Venice,” Hydrobiologia 477, no. 1 (June 1, 2002): 209–19, https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021094008569.
[28] David Zilber, “The End of Endemism,” Medium (blog), December 20, 2022, https://davidzilber.medium.com/the-end-of-endemism-6ffe4adf0519.